Long-distance photogrammetric trait estimation in free-ranging animals: A new approach

The acquisition of accurate information on the size of traits in animals is fundamental for the study of animal ecology and evolution and their management. We demonstrate how morphological traits of free-ranging animals can reliably be estimated on very large observation distances of several hundred meters by the use of ordinary digital photographic equipment and simple photogrammetric software. In our study, we estimated the length of horn annuli in free-ranging male Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) by taking already measured horn annuli of conspecifics on the same photographs as scaling units. Comparisons with hand-measured horn annuli lengths and repeatability analyses revealed a high accuracy of the photogrammetric estimates. If length estimations of specific horn annuli are based on multiple photographs measurement errors of <5.5 mm can be expected. In the current study the application of the described photogrammetric procedure increased the sample size of animals with known horn annuli length by an additional 104%. The presented photogrammetric procedure is of broad applicability and represents an easy, robust and cost-efficient method for the measuring of individuals in populations where animals are hard to capture or to approach

To see or not to see: non-invasive imaging for improved readout of drug treatment trials in the murine model of secondary alveolar echinococcosis

Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is an emerging zoonotic disease caused by the cestode Echinococcus multilocularis. The secondary infection model of AE is based on intraperitoneal injection of disease-causing metacestodes into the peritoneal cavity of mice, which allows investigations on novel drugs or immunotherapeutical treatment options in vivo. So far, such in vivo studies assessed exclusively the parasite weight at the endpoint of a given treatment period. We here developed an ultrasound (US)-based scoring system that allows to follow-up parasite development in the living animal, and provides insights into parasite growth during the treatment phase. By this method a statistically significant difference between untreated and medicated mice with E. multilocularis infection was observed at 2 months post-infection, and the growth curve of the parasite load was described by a linear mixed model. High correlation and similar levels of variation were observed for the standard method based on parasite weight measurement, the novel US-based scoring system, as well volume segmentation by post-mortem magnetic resonance imaging. Thus, US-based scoring in the live animal has the potential to assist the 3R concept by contributing to the refinement and reduction of animal use in experimental echinococcosis

Horn Growth and Reproduction in a Long-Lived Male Mammal: No Compensation for Poor Early-Life Horn Growth

Secondary sexual traits in males of polygynous species are important determinants of reproductive success. It is, however, unknown if and how the development of continuously growing traits at different life-stages is related to reproduction in long-lived male mammals. In this study, we evaluated the relationship of early and late horn growth on social status and reproduction in long-lived male Alpine ibex (Capra ibex). For this, we analysed individual horn growth and assessed its effect on dominance and reproduction. No evidence was detected for compensatory horn growth, as late-life horn growth positively depended on early-life horn growth in males. Still, individuals with longer horn segments grown during early adulthood experienced a stronger age-dependent length decline in annual horn growth during the late development. Accordingly, a divergence between individual growth potential and realized horn growth late in life has to be assumed. Residual age-specific horn length and length of early grown horn segments both positively affected dominance and reproductive success, whereas, contrary to our expectation, no significant effect of the length of horn segments grown during the late development was detected. Suspected higher somatic costs incurred by high-quality males during their late development might at least partly be responsible for this finding. Overall, our study suggests that the total length of horns and their early development in long-lived male Alpine ibex is a reliable indicator of reproductive success and that individuals may be unable to compensate for poor early-life growth performance at a later point in life

Occurrence, quantification, and genotyping of Mycoplasma conjunctivae in wild Caprinae with and without infectious keratoconjunctivitis

Mycoplasma conjunctivae, the causative agent of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC), was recently detected in asymptomatic Alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex). This suggested that an external source of infection may not be required for an IKC outbreak in wildlife but might be initiated by healthy carriers, which contradicted previous serologic investigations in chamois. Our aims were to 1) assess the prevalence of M. conjunctivae among asymptomatic ibex and Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra) and its frequency in IKC-affected animals, 2) determine mycoplasma loads in different disease stages, and 3) characterize the M. conjunctivae strains involved. Eye swabs from 654 asymptomatic and 204 symptomatic animals were collected in diverse Swiss regions between 2008 and 2010, and tested by TaqMan real-time PCR. Data analysis was performed considering various patterns of IKC occurrence in the respective sampling regions. Strains from 24 animals were compared by cluster analysis. Prevalence of M. conjunctivae was 5.6% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.7-8.1%) in asymptomatic ibex and 5.8% (CI: 3.0-9.9%) in asymptomatic chamois, with significant differences between years and regions in both species. Detection frequency in symptomatic animals was significantly higher during IKC outbreaks than in nonepidemic situations (i.e., regular but low incidence or sporadic occurrence). Mycoplasma load was significantly lower in eyes from healthy carriers and animals with mild signs than from animals with moderate and severe signs. Although some strains were found in both asymptomatic and diseased animals of the same species, others apparently differed in their pathogenic potential depending on the infected species. Overall, we found a widespread occurrence of M. conjunctivae in wild Caprinae with and without IKC signs. Our results confirm the central role of M. conjunctivae in outbreaks but suggest that other infectious agents may be involved in IKC cases in nonepidemic situations. Additionally, presence and severity of signs are related to the quantity of M. conjunctivae in the eyes rather than to the strain. We propose that individual or environmental factors influence the clinical expression of the disease and that persistence of M. conjunctivae in populations of wild Caprinae cannot be excluded

Simplicimonas-like DNA in vaginal swabs of cows and heifers cross-reacting in the real-time PCR for T. foetus.

Cows on an alpine pasture were presented with severe signs of vaginitis. To rule out infection with Tritrichomonas foetus, vaginal swabs were taken and real-time PCR based on detection via fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) probes and targeting the first internal transcribed spacer (ITS-1) of nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) was performed. PCR was positive in 25 of totally 34 assessed cows. However, the melting profiles of the probes targeting the diagnostic PCR products differed from the T. foetus positive control. Subsequent sequencing of the amplicons revealed 91% identity to Simplicimonas sp. sequences deposited in GenBank™. Furthermore, there was no clear association between positive PCR result and presence of vaginitis. To investigate the distribution of this Simplicimonas-like organism in cows, more herds grazing on the same alpine pastures as well as unrelated cows were tested. In total, 133 cows and 16 heifers were sampled, 53 cows and 6 heifers even twice. Vaginitis was evident in 43 cows and 4 heifers. All-over-positivity of PCR was 44%, including nine tests performed on heifers. Melting peak analysis indicated Simplicimonas-like organisms in all positive samples. Culture attempts in bovine InPouch ™ TF failed. No association between a positive PCR result and the presence of vaginitis was found. This is, to the best of our knowledge, the first report on Simplicimonas-like DNA in vaginal swabs of female cattle. Our data suggest that when testing vaginal swabs of cattle by means of T. foetus PCR, false positive reactions due to Simplicimonas-like organisms may occur

Ausbruch von schwerer Moderhinke in Verbindung mit benignem Dichelobacter nodosus in einer Alpensteinbockkolonie in den Schweizer Voralpen

An outbreak of foot rot occurred in the ibex colony "Vanil Noir" in Switzerland from May to December 2014. This article describes field observations and the analyses carried out on the limbs of 3 animals submitted for postmortem examination. Disease signs observed in the field included lameness, poor body condition and overgrown hooves. Macroscopic examination of selected limbs revealed severe lesions in all of them, including interdigital inflammation with ulceration and malodorous exudation. Histological changes were consistent with chronic laminitis with bone resorption, which was not detected at radiographical examination. Grocott-positive organisms compatible with Dichelobacternodosus were detected in the lesions. Samples collected from the lesions were positive by polymerase chain reaction for benign D. nodosus, which is typically associated with only mild lesions in domestic sheep. Whether D. nodosus is endemic in the colony or had previously been transmitted from sympatric domestic livestock is unclear. The unusual warm and humid weather conditions in 2014 may well have contributed to the outbreak

Apparent prevalence of and risk factors for infection with Ostertagia ostertagi, Fasciola hepatica and Dictyocaulus viviparus in Swiss dairy herds.

Infections with helminth parasites can negatively affect performance of dairy cows. Knowledge on infection intensity, spatial distributions and risk factors are key to develop targeted treatment strategies. Canada and most EU countries have conducted large investigations, but respective data for Switzerland were missing. We now performed a bulk tank milk serosurvey for Ostertagia ostertagi, Fasciola hepatica, and Dictyocaulus viviparus on a total of 1036 voluntarily participating dairy herds that were sampled at confinement periods, i.e. in winter 2014/15 or 2015/16, respectively. All samples were analyzed with commercial ELISAs for antibodies (AB) against O. ostertagi and F. hepatica, and those of the first sampling period additionally with an in-house ELISA for AB against D. viviparus. Testing for the latter parasite was not done in the second year of the study, as the sampling period might have missed infections due to the short lived nature of specific antibodies. The possible influence of geographic, climatic, and farm management variables on AB levels were assessed for each parasite using scanning cluster and multiple regression analysis. Overall seroprevalence for O. ostertagi was 95.5% (95% C.I.: 94.0-96.6), with a mean optical density ratio (ODR) of 0.83, for F. hepatica 41.3% (95% C.I.: 38.3-44.4), and for D. viviparus 2.9% (95% C.I.: 1.6-4.7). There were no significant differences between the two sampling periods. For all parasites, significant geographic clusters of higher AB levels could be established. Furthermore, AB levels against all three parasites were positively correlated with each other, indicating either cross-reactions or co-infections. For O. ostertagi, herd size and percentage of pasture in the ration were positively correlated with AB levels. For F. hepatica, altitude above sea level (a.s.l.) positively, and milk production per cow and year was negatively correlated with AB levels. This work provides baseline data for further studies performing in-depth risk factor analysis and investigating management as well as targeted treatment options to control the parasites

Cluster of Leptospirosis Acquired Through River Surfing in Switzerland

Background.  In Switzerland, leptospirosis is still considered as a travel-associated disease. After the surprising diagnosis of leptospirosis in a patient who was initially suspected as having primary human immunodeficiency virus infection, we recognized that acquisition of leptospirosis occurred through recreational activities and we identified additional affected individuals. Methods.  Detailed anamnesis, excluding occupational exposure, acquisition abroad, and pet contacts, enabled us to detect the source of infection and identify a cluster of leptospirosis. Convalescent sera testing was performed to confirm Leptospira infection. Microscopic agglutination tests were used to determine the infecting serovar. Results.  We identified a cluster of leptospirosis in young, previously healthy persons. Acquisition of leptospirosis was traced back to a surfing spot on a river in Switzerland (Reuss, Aargau). Clinical presentation was indistinct. Two of the 3 reported cases required hospitalization, and 1 case even suffered from meningitis. Serologic tests indicated infection with the serovar Grippotyphosa in all cases. With the exception of the case with meningitis, no antibiotics were administered, because leptospirosis was diagnosed after spontaneous resolution of most symptoms. Despite a prolonged period of convalescence in 2 cases, full recovery was achieved. Recent reports on beavers suffering from leptospirosis in this region underline the possible water-borne infection of the 3 cases and raise the question of potential wildlife reservoirs. Conclusions.  Insufficient awareness of caregivers, which may be promoted by the missing obligation to report human leptospirosis, combined with the multifaceted presentation of the disease result in significant underdiagnosis. More frequent consideration of leptospirosis as differential diagnosis is inevitable, particularly as veterinary data suggest re-emergence of the disease

Serratospiculosis in Captive Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) in Switzerland

Infection with Serratospiculum species was identified in a captive peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) in Switzerland. Pathologic and parasitologic examination results revealed generalized severe granulomatous airsacculitis, with intralesional adults, larvae, and eggs of Serratospiculum species. Subsequently, an individual coprological analysis of the remaining 15 falcons (peregrine falcons and gyrfalcons [Falco rusticolus]) from the same owner was performed. Eggs of Serratospiculum species (4 birds) and Capillaria species (11 birds), and oocysts of Caryospora species (1 bird) were detected. Treatment with ivermection (2 mg/kg SC) was effective, as none of the falcons excreted Serratospiculum species eggs 10 days after one dose. To our knowledge, this is the first report of infection with Serratospiculum species in captive falcons in Europe